http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cycling-revolution-london.pdf
p.3
Mayoral foreword
Since 2000 the number of cyclists on the Capital’s major
roads has more than doubled – up nine per cent in the year
2008‑09 alone.
Yet this is just the start. I’m determined to turn London into
a cyclised city – a civilised city where people can ride their
bikes safely and easily in a pleasant environment. Cycling,
with all its social, environmental, health and financial benefits,
has an important role to play in the future of the Capital
p.4
What does a cyclised London mean? I believe it means
achieving 10 conditions:
~ Cycling recognised as a major transport mode right across the capital, from
central London to the outer boroughs
~ Streets and spaces where everyone respects each other’s right to use the road,
where they stick to the rules of the road, and where everyone recognises their
duty of care to other road users
~ A reduction in cycling casualties, with a particular focus on reducing the risk
of collisions between cyclists and HGVs
~ An increase in secure cycle-parking on streets, in workplaces, and at stations
and schools
~ Cycle theft tackled through dedicated police attention so people can
be confident they’ll find their bike where they locked it
~ Cycling promoted as an enjoyable, everyday, healthy activity
~ Cycling embedded into the way our city is planned and run
~ Investment in cycling maximised – from both the private and public sectors
~ Key partners working together to deliver cycling initiatives
~ New routes and opportunities for commuting, leisure and local cycling trips
But I’m not alone; this is not a lone crusade. Sixteen organisations, listed opposite,
from across the public and private sectors in London have put their names to this
vision for a cyclised London and will be instrumental in helping create the conditions
that will deliver it.
p.6
400 percent incease since 2001 needed so cycling accounts for 5 percent of all journeys
p.7
KULVEER RANGER
Mayor’s Transport Advisor and TfL Board Member
now around half a million journeys are made by bicycle
on each day.
It can help to unlock a trinity of benefits: Environmental, by encouraging modal shift
from the car to the bike for short journeys we can ease congestion and improve local
air quality; Health – this one’s a no brainer – with increased physical activity; and finally
economic benefits, shorter journeys to local shops can lead to the reinvigoration of
our high streets and local businesses.
While the London Cycle Hire scheme in central London may be perfect for nipping
about the West End, a different solution is needed for people cycling in Outer London,
visiting friends, shopping or travelling to school. In fact, an astonishing two-thirds of
the growth potential exists in Outer London where about half of all car journeys
could be cycled in just 10 minutes.
p.9
We know that there are many barriers that prevent people taking to pedal power. For
some, it’s a fear of traffic. Others simply find the car, bus or Tube more convenient.
Often it comes down to habit. We are working hard to break down these barriers and
make cycling the most convenient and obvious choice for most journeys.
Note it is London’s year fo cycling
p. 10
As a result of the increase in investment in recent years, the rise in the number of
people cycling has already been significant, with a 117 per cent increase on London’s
major roads since 2000.
The Mayor wants these benefits to be enjoyed by even more
people and is aiming to deliver a 400 per cent increase in cycling by 2026, compared
to the 2001 baseline.
Forty per cent of households in London have access to a bike, but one in five of
these are unused.
p.11
Central London – is characterised by high employment density, a significant
concentration of short journeys, limited road space and low levels of car use.
With cycling offering a faster, more pleasant alternative for getting around the
centre of London, significant growth in cycling is well within reach.
Inner London – There are many thousands of commuters from the Inner London
boroughs that use the London Underground and London’s buses to journey into
the centre of the Capital each day. For these people, the bike could provide a fast,
convenient alternative. The ambition will be to provide solutions that make the
bike the default choice for many more of these journeys.
Outer London – Successful cycling schemes show that the right incentives and
a commitment by London boroughs can transform the cycling culture in an area,
including in Outer London. Many short journeys are made by car in Outer London,
and there is significant potential to encourage some of these to switch to bike.
p.12
This year, 2010, is the Year of Cycling. It sees the launch of three major programmes
designed to turn London into a cyclised city: the London Cycle Hire Scheme, Cycle
Superhighways, and Biking Boroughs.
London Cycle Hire Scheme – To help make London a genuinely cycle-friendly city,
6,000 bikes will become available from summer 2010. These will be available for
hire at around 400 special docking stations located in nine boroughs and in the Royal
Parks 24 hours a day, seven days a week, all year round. Users will be provided with
information on times to key destinations and cycle routes from each of the docking
stations. By combining high quality bikes, convenient locations, and a quick system
for registering, the scheme is set to become a major new form of public transport
in London, delivering an additional 40,000 cycle trips per day.
Cycle Superhighways – Using improved infrastructure to give cyclists more space
and security on the carriageway and to raise driver awareness of cyclists, twelve
Cycle Superhighways are planned. These will cater for existing cycle commuters
and will also provide for those wishing to give biking to work a try for the first time.
The first two pilot routes to Barking and Merton will be ready by the summer
of 2010 and the remainder are planned to be introduced by 2015. A significant
element of the programme will be the package of home and work-end smarter
travel measures. These will be critical to encouraging take-up and continued use,
leading to an expected 120,000 cycle trips per day. In addition, cycle parking, training
and maintenance, as well as marketing and promotional support will be offered to
residents and businesses along the route.
Biking Boroughs – This will involve locally-led initiatives driven by the boroughs
to promote cycling in an integrated way with key partners such as the police,
healthcare providers, schools and workplaces. The aim is to address the barriers
to cycling
promotion, training and behavioural change, while enabling more cycle
journeys through the targeted introduction of highway improvements
p.13
Route improvements for cyclists – TfL has invested heavily in cycling
improvements on the Transport for London Road Network (TLRN), at locations such
as the Elephant and Castle Southern Roundabout and the A316 Lower Richmond Road.
p.49
The Department for Transport has also developed a voluntary initiative, the Cycle
Guarantee Scheme, which challenges businesses to become more cycle-friendly
employers. By signing up, businesses signal their commitment to making it easier
for staff to cycle to work with efforts targeted around five key pledges:
~ Storing – secure, safe and accessible bike parking
~ Changing – good-quality changing and locker facilities
~ Buying – the Cycle to Work Scheme
~ Repairing – bike repair for cyclists on or near site
~ Inspiring – training, reward and incentive programmes to achieve targets
for more cycling
TfL is working closely with schools to promote cycling, with London leading the way
in targeting a change in school travel. By the end of 2009, more than 2,700 schools
had an approved travel plan, representing 90 per cent of London’s schools. Results
have been impressive, too, with a reported 6.2 percentage point reduction in the
proportion of car use since the start of the School Travel Plan programme.
p.67
The Department of Health estimates physical
inactivity costs London’s PCTs alone at least £105m a year and new cycling
projects can directly tackle this.
By working in partnership with healthcare services TfL can help to achieve the
aims of NHS London’s ‘Go London’ campaign, to create a more healthy and active
London by 2012. In
lundi 1 novembre 2010
Structure and Agency in Land and Property Development Processes : Some Ideas for Research Patsy Healey and Susan M . Barrett
Structure and Agency in Land and Property
Development Processes : Some Ideas for Research
Patsy Healey and Susan M . Barrett
Urban Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1990 89-104
p.89
It is argued that while these approaches-institutional analysis,
neo-classical location theory and land economics, and Marxist economics-provide useful
directions for understanding the development process, they lack the capability to address a
fundamental dimension of our understanding of development processes . This is the relation
between the way actors behave in deploying resources to realise specific investments, with
which much of the real estate literature is concerned, and the broader processes which drive
the strategies and interests of the various actors involved .
The
role of landownership, the organisation of
the construction industry, the nature of the
finance invested in urban development
and the significance of intermediaries,
from developers to property consultants,
lie hidden or are given little more than a
passing reference in many historical accounts
of urban development,
Development Processes : Some Ideas for Research
Patsy Healey and Susan M . Barrett
Urban Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1990 89-104
p.89
It is argued that while these approaches-institutional analysis,
neo-classical location theory and land economics, and Marxist economics-provide useful
directions for understanding the development process, they lack the capability to address a
fundamental dimension of our understanding of development processes . This is the relation
between the way actors behave in deploying resources to realise specific investments, with
which much of the real estate literature is concerned, and the broader processes which drive
the strategies and interests of the various actors involved .
The
role of landownership, the organisation of
the construction industry, the nature of the
finance invested in urban development
and the significance of intermediaries,
from developers to property consultants,
lie hidden or are given little more than a
passing reference in many historical accounts
of urban development,
HRH Prince of Wales, A Vision of Britain: A Personal View of Architecture, Doubleday, 1988
HRH Prince of Wales, A Vision of Britain: A Personal View of Architecture, Doubleday, 1988
p.7
‘For a long time i have felt strongly about the wanton destruction which has taken place in this country in the name of progress; about the sheer, unadulterated ugliness and mediocrity of public and commercial buildings, and of hosuign estates, not to mention the dreariness and heartlessness of much urban planning.’
p.9
‘we have ended up with Frankenstein monsters, devoid of character, alien and unloved’
‘the further I delve into the shadowy world of architecture, planning and property development the more I become aware of the powerful influence of various interest groups. Hence the frequently violent and vitriolic reactions to the points I have been making.’
Architects blamed planners, but HRH says ‘it wasn’t the local councillors or the developers who had read Le Corbusier and other apostles of modernism, and then persuaded reluctant architects to adopt ‘progressive’ ideas. Architects deliberately staged a revolution within their own organisation and their own system of education. It was the ‘great architects’ of this period who convinced everyone that the world would be safe in their hands.’
p.10
‘their philosophical approach to the whole question fo the design of the bult environment as it affects people and the lives they live, is what concerns me.’
Says architects want to reject past to reflect spirit of the age ‘whatever thast might be!’
p.11. quotes Egyptian architect Dr Hassan Fathy ‘we have abandoned human scale and ‘human reference’. We need to reintroduce human scale, human reference and musicality in architecture.’
p.13 approves of ‘village-like quality’ of Newcastle Theatre village scheme
p.15
says French ‘have been clever – and shown great taste’ in I.M. Pei’s pyramid by the Louvre. ‘while I am not sure that I would myself have placed such an edifice on that particular spot, it has been designed with great care in order to harmonise as far as possible with the Louvre itself.’
Likes courts of justice in Truro ‘happily enhance the skyline.’
‘we all need beauty. We can’t live without it – as we’ve all discovered to our communcal cost.’
p.17
says character of a country ‘which is so evident in the local architectural styles of the buildings you see in each country, is part of an extraordinarily ricj tradition which we’ve inherited from our forebears.’
p.21
‘all over britain cities were devastated by planners, politicians and architects who sought to build ‘cities of towers’.
p.23
housing association in skipton. ‘dseigned with respect for the place’s past, using local stone, and built in the traditional style. And the residents seem to like it.’
Then complains about skipton building society ‘out of scale monster’ trying ot dominate the town (more respect for scale9 and says shops on high street could be anywhere.’chain stores with their ugly shop-front designs do corrode local identity.’ Prefers craven court, roofed ove old street to look like arcade
p.41
‘gaunt and unlovely towerblocks which rose like great tomstnes from pointless and windswept open spaces.’
p.46
Mondial House ‘this excrescence.’ ‘Do humans work in there?’
Finds it ‘incomprehensible’ that no thoguhtgiven to buildings that ‘harmonise with, rather than scream at’ St Paul’s.
p.49
‘the poor old tower of London itself lies somewhere here, remorselessly buried by the crude mass of the Tower Hotel and overshadowed by the slovenly towers of commerce.’
p.59
‘the soul fo the city has been conquered by the hovering hordes of concrete giants.’
1960s ‘rising rot’
To help architects who might wish to apply the Prince's architectural ideas, His Royal Highness has summarized the main points into Ten Principles:
1. The Place
2. Hierarchy
3. Scale
4. Harmony
5. Enclosure
6. Materials
7. Decoration
8. Art
9. Signs & Lights
10. Community
p.78
‘we must respect the land… new buildings can be intrusive or they can be designed and sited so that they fit in.’
p.80
‘there are two kinds of hierarchy..one is the size of buildings in relation to their public importance. The other is the relative significance of the different elements which make up a building. Good architecture should be like good manners and follow a recognised code.
p.84 harmony
p.86 enclosure
materials
decoration
art
signs and lights
community
p.117
‘I have a feeling that there is a sincere desire now for buildings and tyheir settings and layout which will raise our spirits once again and give us joy by their scale and by their attention to detail. Such attention to detail and to human scale creates that elusive quality fo character
’
http://zeta.math.utsa.edu/~yxk833/Charles.html
p.7
‘For a long time i have felt strongly about the wanton destruction which has taken place in this country in the name of progress; about the sheer, unadulterated ugliness and mediocrity of public and commercial buildings, and of hosuign estates, not to mention the dreariness and heartlessness of much urban planning.’
p.9
‘we have ended up with Frankenstein monsters, devoid of character, alien and unloved’
‘the further I delve into the shadowy world of architecture, planning and property development the more I become aware of the powerful influence of various interest groups. Hence the frequently violent and vitriolic reactions to the points I have been making.’
Architects blamed planners, but HRH says ‘it wasn’t the local councillors or the developers who had read Le Corbusier and other apostles of modernism, and then persuaded reluctant architects to adopt ‘progressive’ ideas. Architects deliberately staged a revolution within their own organisation and their own system of education. It was the ‘great architects’ of this period who convinced everyone that the world would be safe in their hands.’
p.10
‘their philosophical approach to the whole question fo the design of the bult environment as it affects people and the lives they live, is what concerns me.’
Says architects want to reject past to reflect spirit of the age ‘whatever thast might be!’
p.11. quotes Egyptian architect Dr Hassan Fathy ‘we have abandoned human scale and ‘human reference’. We need to reintroduce human scale, human reference and musicality in architecture.’
p.13 approves of ‘village-like quality’ of Newcastle Theatre village scheme
p.15
says French ‘have been clever – and shown great taste’ in I.M. Pei’s pyramid by the Louvre. ‘while I am not sure that I would myself have placed such an edifice on that particular spot, it has been designed with great care in order to harmonise as far as possible with the Louvre itself.’
Likes courts of justice in Truro ‘happily enhance the skyline.’
‘we all need beauty. We can’t live without it – as we’ve all discovered to our communcal cost.’
p.17
says character of a country ‘which is so evident in the local architectural styles of the buildings you see in each country, is part of an extraordinarily ricj tradition which we’ve inherited from our forebears.’
p.21
‘all over britain cities were devastated by planners, politicians and architects who sought to build ‘cities of towers’.
p.23
housing association in skipton. ‘dseigned with respect for the place’s past, using local stone, and built in the traditional style. And the residents seem to like it.’
Then complains about skipton building society ‘out of scale monster’ trying ot dominate the town (more respect for scale9 and says shops on high street could be anywhere.’chain stores with their ugly shop-front designs do corrode local identity.’ Prefers craven court, roofed ove old street to look like arcade
p.41
‘gaunt and unlovely towerblocks which rose like great tomstnes from pointless and windswept open spaces.’
p.46
Mondial House ‘this excrescence.’ ‘Do humans work in there?’
Finds it ‘incomprehensible’ that no thoguhtgiven to buildings that ‘harmonise with, rather than scream at’ St Paul’s.
p.49
‘the poor old tower of London itself lies somewhere here, remorselessly buried by the crude mass of the Tower Hotel and overshadowed by the slovenly towers of commerce.’
p.59
‘the soul fo the city has been conquered by the hovering hordes of concrete giants.’
1960s ‘rising rot’
To help architects who might wish to apply the Prince's architectural ideas, His Royal Highness has summarized the main points into Ten Principles:
1. The Place
2. Hierarchy
3. Scale
4. Harmony
5. Enclosure
6. Materials
7. Decoration
8. Art
9. Signs & Lights
10. Community
p.78
‘we must respect the land… new buildings can be intrusive or they can be designed and sited so that they fit in.’
p.80
‘there are two kinds of hierarchy..one is the size of buildings in relation to their public importance. The other is the relative significance of the different elements which make up a building. Good architecture should be like good manners and follow a recognised code.
p.84 harmony
p.86 enclosure
materials
decoration
art
signs and lights
community
p.117
‘I have a feeling that there is a sincere desire now for buildings and tyheir settings and layout which will raise our spirits once again and give us joy by their scale and by their attention to detail. Such attention to detail and to human scale creates that elusive quality fo character
’
http://zeta.math.utsa.edu/~yxk833/Charles.html
Lynch Kevin, The Image of the City, MIT Press, 1961
Lynch Kevin, The Image of the City, MIT Press, 1961
p.1
‘City design is a temporal art, but it can rarely use the controlled and therefore limited sequences of other temporal arts like music.’
‘At every instant there is more than the eye can see, more than the ear can hear, a setting or view waiting to be explored. Nothin is experienced by itself, but always in relation to its surroundings, the sequence of events leading up to it, the memory of past experiences.’
‘Every citizen has had long associations with some part of his city, and his image is soaked in memories and meanings.’
p.2
‘percieved (and perhaps enjoyed) by millions of people of widely divesrse class, and character… the produce of many builders who are constantly modifying the structure.’
‘While it may be stable in general outlines for soime time, it is ever changing in detail.’ Only partial control can be exercised over its growth and form. There is no final result, only a continuous succession of phases.’
p.2-3
legibility ‘the ease with which is parts can be recognised and can be organised into a coherent pattern.’
‘a legible city would be one whose districts or landmarks or pathways are easily identifiable and are easily grouped into an over-all pattern.’
p.3
‘legibility is crucial in the city setting….. It is of special importance when considering environments at the urban scale of size, time and complexity…. To understand this, we must consider not just the city as a thing in itself, but the city being perceived by its inhabitants.’
p.4
getting lost makes us scared.
Vivid physical setting ‘can furnish the raw material for the symbols and collective memories of group communication.’ Eg common memories of home town for soldiers.
‘a good environmental image gives its possessor an important sense of emotional security.’
p.5
‘a distinctive and legible environment not only offers security but also heightens the potential depth and intensity of human experience.’
p.8
‘an environmental image may be analysed into three components: identity, structure and meaning,’
Identity - distinct from others
Strcuture- spatial pattern with relation to obsever
Meaning
‘we may even be wise to concentrate on the physical clarity of the image and to allow meaning to develop without our direct guidance.’
p.19
Boston
‘has a structure that is understood by almost everyone.’
Charles river and bridge make backbone together with parallel streets
New Jersey City. V few landmarks. View of Manhattan and Newwark main references.
LA – very vague when downtown. Recognise streets just by names
p.46-48
Contents of city images can be classified into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks
Paths – streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads (‘channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally or potentially moves’)
Edges – ‘ linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer’) boundaries between two phases: walls, shores etc. can be barriers or seam lines. Not as dominant as paths
Districts – have some common identifiable character and two dimensional form (’inside of’)
Nodes – strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter. Moments of shift. Or concentrations – focus of a district. Cores. Can be dominant feature of image
Landmarks – building, sign, store, mountain.
p.84-85
pairs can reinforce and strengthen or conflict and destroy
eventually can go beyond pairings to study patterns
p.85
‘rather than a single comprehensive image for the entire environment, there seemed to be sets of images which more or less overlapped and interrelated
p.86 if tall building recognisable at a distance but not at base, then is opportunity lost
need some link with past when there are changes
p.90
‘we are continuously engaged in the attempt to organize our surroundings, to structure and identify them, … when reshaping cities it should be possible to give them a form which facilitates these organizing efforts rather than frustrates them.’
p.92 ‘if the environment is visibly organized and sharply identified then the citizen can inform ut with his own meanings and connections. Then it will become a place remarkable and unmistakeable.’
9.93
Florence ‘there seems to eb a simple and automatic pleasure, a feeling of satisfaction, presence rightness, which arises from the mere sight of the city, or the chance to walk through its streets‘
Says Florence is unusal. Highly visible city is a rarity. Maybe 20 or 30 cities in world have consistent, strong image. And even they
p.94
‘the famous cities all suffer from the same faceless sprawl at the periphery.’.
9.96. Visual hierarchy of streets and ways ‘sensuous singling out of the key channels’ which si the ‘skeleton of the city image.’
‘the line of motion should have clarity of direction’ we are confused by things which turn or ambiguous turns.
;observers seems ot endow a path with a sense of pointing or irreversible direction’ so its ok if it has a few turns which never looses basic direction is ok
Objects can be placed on path to sharpen the effect of motion or petrspective
Paths can also be network, colour planting and detail can help.
p.99 ‘melodic’ organisation ie events and charachteristics organised to be experienced over time eg approach to San Francisco across the bay
p. 100
Edge gains strength is visible from distance eg abrupt stop of buildings at wall of medieval vity or fronting of appartments on centralk park
p.101
‘image strength rises when the landmark coincides with a concentration of association’ eg with my brightly coloured door.
Good if node coincides withg break in transportation or decision point. Gradient.
Form qualities pp 105 to 108
1. Singularity sharpness of boundary, oberservers as more familiar want depend less on detail and delight more in contrast
2. Form simplicity
3. Continuity
4. Dominance
5. Clarity of joint
6 directional differentiation
7 visual scope
8 motion awareness
9 time series
10 names and meanings
p.109
The five elements (path edge etc_ ‘must be considered simply as convenient empirical cetegoroes, withina nd around which it has been possible to group a mass of information.’ or ‘building block for the designer’
0. 114 need sequences that are interruptible as people can enter from either direction of halfway to climax
p. 116 visual plan for the city or metropolitan region
Analysis start with analysis or existing form and public image of area. Conslude with series of diagrams and reports illustrating significant public images, basic visual problems and opportunities and critical image elements and element iter-relations with detailed qualities an dpossibilities for change.
Object of visual plan to strengthen public image. Could prescribe cretaion or clarification of modal points visial hierarchy of paths, establishement of thematic units fo districts. Deal with iterrelations of elements and perception in motion
p.119 ‘we need an environment that is not simply well organised but peotic and symbolic aswell. It should speak of the individuals and their complex society, of their aspirations and their historical tradition, of the natural setting, and of the complicated functions and movements of the city world.’
‘by appearing as a remarkable and well-knit place, the city could provide a ground for the clustering and organisation of these meanings and associations. Such a sense of place in itself enhances every human activity that occurs there, and encourages the deposit of a memory trace.’
The use of method
Interview
Questions: p141-142
1. What first comes to mind, symbolises Boston? Broadly describe in a physical sense
2. 2. Quick map of central Boston (as if for a stranger, covering main features. Rugh sketch)
3. a) complete and explicit directions for route to work. Picture yourself making trip and describe sequence inc pathmarkers important for you. (pictures, names not important) and b) do you have emotional feelings about part of your trip? How long? Are there areas where you are uncertain of location?
4. What elements are most distinctive?
5. a) Would you describe X to me? If blindfolded, taken there, what clues you need to know where you are. b) are any emotional feelings with regard to X? c) can you show me on a map where X is and boundaries
6. show me on your map north
7. free discussion. A) what do you think we are trying ot find out, b) what importance is orientation and recognition of city elements? C) any pleasure from knowing where you are going d) is boston easy to navigate? E) what other cities do you know with good orientation. Why?
p. 155
Mass interview of large sample
a) draw quick sketch map of area, showing interesting and important features and giving stranger knowledge
b) make similar sketch of the route and events along one or two imaginary trips
c) written list of parts of the city felt to be most distinctive
d) brief written answers to a few questions. Where is X located?
p. 157 Also make sure not just a derivation of local culture. Interesting to look at whether images are art of cultural training.
p.1
‘City design is a temporal art, but it can rarely use the controlled and therefore limited sequences of other temporal arts like music.’
‘At every instant there is more than the eye can see, more than the ear can hear, a setting or view waiting to be explored. Nothin is experienced by itself, but always in relation to its surroundings, the sequence of events leading up to it, the memory of past experiences.’
‘Every citizen has had long associations with some part of his city, and his image is soaked in memories and meanings.’
p.2
‘percieved (and perhaps enjoyed) by millions of people of widely divesrse class, and character… the produce of many builders who are constantly modifying the structure.’
‘While it may be stable in general outlines for soime time, it is ever changing in detail.’ Only partial control can be exercised over its growth and form. There is no final result, only a continuous succession of phases.’
p.2-3
legibility ‘the ease with which is parts can be recognised and can be organised into a coherent pattern.’
‘a legible city would be one whose districts or landmarks or pathways are easily identifiable and are easily grouped into an over-all pattern.’
p.3
‘legibility is crucial in the city setting….. It is of special importance when considering environments at the urban scale of size, time and complexity…. To understand this, we must consider not just the city as a thing in itself, but the city being perceived by its inhabitants.’
p.4
getting lost makes us scared.
Vivid physical setting ‘can furnish the raw material for the symbols and collective memories of group communication.’ Eg common memories of home town for soldiers.
‘a good environmental image gives its possessor an important sense of emotional security.’
p.5
‘a distinctive and legible environment not only offers security but also heightens the potential depth and intensity of human experience.’
p.8
‘an environmental image may be analysed into three components: identity, structure and meaning,’
Identity - distinct from others
Strcuture- spatial pattern with relation to obsever
Meaning
‘we may even be wise to concentrate on the physical clarity of the image and to allow meaning to develop without our direct guidance.’
p.19
Boston
‘has a structure that is understood by almost everyone.’
Charles river and bridge make backbone together with parallel streets
New Jersey City. V few landmarks. View of Manhattan and Newwark main references.
LA – very vague when downtown. Recognise streets just by names
p.46-48
Contents of city images can be classified into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks
Paths – streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads (‘channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally or potentially moves’)
Edges – ‘ linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer’) boundaries between two phases: walls, shores etc. can be barriers or seam lines. Not as dominant as paths
Districts – have some common identifiable character and two dimensional form (’inside of’)
Nodes – strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter. Moments of shift. Or concentrations – focus of a district. Cores. Can be dominant feature of image
Landmarks – building, sign, store, mountain.
p.84-85
pairs can reinforce and strengthen or conflict and destroy
eventually can go beyond pairings to study patterns
p.85
‘rather than a single comprehensive image for the entire environment, there seemed to be sets of images which more or less overlapped and interrelated
p.86 if tall building recognisable at a distance but not at base, then is opportunity lost
need some link with past when there are changes
p.90
‘we are continuously engaged in the attempt to organize our surroundings, to structure and identify them, … when reshaping cities it should be possible to give them a form which facilitates these organizing efforts rather than frustrates them.’
p.92 ‘if the environment is visibly organized and sharply identified then the citizen can inform ut with his own meanings and connections. Then it will become a place remarkable and unmistakeable.’
9.93
Florence ‘there seems to eb a simple and automatic pleasure, a feeling of satisfaction, presence rightness, which arises from the mere sight of the city, or the chance to walk through its streets‘
Says Florence is unusal. Highly visible city is a rarity. Maybe 20 or 30 cities in world have consistent, strong image. And even they
p.94
‘the famous cities all suffer from the same faceless sprawl at the periphery.’.
9.96. Visual hierarchy of streets and ways ‘sensuous singling out of the key channels’ which si the ‘skeleton of the city image.’
‘the line of motion should have clarity of direction’ we are confused by things which turn or ambiguous turns.
;observers seems ot endow a path with a sense of pointing or irreversible direction’ so its ok if it has a few turns which never looses basic direction is ok
Objects can be placed on path to sharpen the effect of motion or petrspective
Paths can also be network, colour planting and detail can help.
p.99 ‘melodic’ organisation ie events and charachteristics organised to be experienced over time eg approach to San Francisco across the bay
p. 100
Edge gains strength is visible from distance eg abrupt stop of buildings at wall of medieval vity or fronting of appartments on centralk park
p.101
‘image strength rises when the landmark coincides with a concentration of association’ eg with my brightly coloured door.
Good if node coincides withg break in transportation or decision point. Gradient.
Form qualities pp 105 to 108
1. Singularity sharpness of boundary, oberservers as more familiar want depend less on detail and delight more in contrast
2. Form simplicity
3. Continuity
4. Dominance
5. Clarity of joint
6 directional differentiation
7 visual scope
8 motion awareness
9 time series
10 names and meanings
p.109
The five elements (path edge etc_ ‘must be considered simply as convenient empirical cetegoroes, withina nd around which it has been possible to group a mass of information.’ or ‘building block for the designer’
0. 114 need sequences that are interruptible as people can enter from either direction of halfway to climax
p. 116 visual plan for the city or metropolitan region
Analysis start with analysis or existing form and public image of area. Conslude with series of diagrams and reports illustrating significant public images, basic visual problems and opportunities and critical image elements and element iter-relations with detailed qualities an dpossibilities for change.
Object of visual plan to strengthen public image. Could prescribe cretaion or clarification of modal points visial hierarchy of paths, establishement of thematic units fo districts. Deal with iterrelations of elements and perception in motion
p.119 ‘we need an environment that is not simply well organised but peotic and symbolic aswell. It should speak of the individuals and their complex society, of their aspirations and their historical tradition, of the natural setting, and of the complicated functions and movements of the city world.’
‘by appearing as a remarkable and well-knit place, the city could provide a ground for the clustering and organisation of these meanings and associations. Such a sense of place in itself enhances every human activity that occurs there, and encourages the deposit of a memory trace.’
The use of method
Interview
Questions: p141-142
1. What first comes to mind, symbolises Boston? Broadly describe in a physical sense
2. 2. Quick map of central Boston (as if for a stranger, covering main features. Rugh sketch)
3. a) complete and explicit directions for route to work. Picture yourself making trip and describe sequence inc pathmarkers important for you. (pictures, names not important) and b) do you have emotional feelings about part of your trip? How long? Are there areas where you are uncertain of location?
4. What elements are most distinctive?
5. a) Would you describe X to me? If blindfolded, taken there, what clues you need to know where you are. b) are any emotional feelings with regard to X? c) can you show me on a map where X is and boundaries
6. show me on your map north
7. free discussion. A) what do you think we are trying ot find out, b) what importance is orientation and recognition of city elements? C) any pleasure from knowing where you are going d) is boston easy to navigate? E) what other cities do you know with good orientation. Why?
p. 155
Mass interview of large sample
a) draw quick sketch map of area, showing interesting and important features and giving stranger knowledge
b) make similar sketch of the route and events along one or two imaginary trips
c) written list of parts of the city felt to be most distinctive
d) brief written answers to a few questions. Where is X located?
p. 157 Also make sure not just a derivation of local culture. Interesting to look at whether images are art of cultural training.
lundi 25 octobre 2010
Agglomeration Economies and the Future of Cities William C. Strange
William C. Strange, "Agglomeration and the Future of Cities," Policy Analysis and Economic Policy Conference, 2003. http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/~wstrange/WS_Future_of_Cities_Wrkg_5-22-03.pdf
p.3
It is important to recognize that concentration is costly. Putting more business activity in
a small area raises the cost of doing business there in many ways: commutes are longer
and space is more costly to name just two. Thus, industry clustering must benefit
businesses in some way that compensates them for the costs of concentrating.
p.4
Cities are costly, as noted above. And there have been technological changes – relatively
cheap air travel and telephone communication, the invention of the fax machine, and
most notoriously the Internet – that have possibly made it less costly to locate away from
concentrations. Thus, there has been speculation that cities will decline in importance.
This is the biggest question of all.
P5
One answer to this question is that agglomeration exists because firms enjoy internal
economies of scale. Scale economies imply that the firm needs many workers; workers
concentrate to economize on commuting; thus, there is an agglomeration. This answer is
not completely satisfying, though, since it motivates only the existence of factory towns
and not the diverse cities that we actually observe.
A more satisfying answer is to say that there are "agglomeration economies", external
economies of scale that make firms more productive in large cities.
p.13
Our results suggest strongly
that firms must be quite close in order to benefit from each other's presence. And this is
true even in the software industry, where presumably everyone has access to email, and
so distance should not matter at all.
I would like to point out that our estimates also establish that diverse locations (low
values of "herf") are more attractive to new firms than are specialized ones. This is
consistent with the increasingly popular view that the benefits of clustering have limits.
It appears that small firms and nonsubsidiary firms have a greater positive
effect on their neighbors than do large firms and subsidiaries.
One interpretation of these results is that an entrepreneurial business environment is more
productive than a hierarchical environment. This certainly appears to be the case in the
Silicon Valley. In the mid-1980s, both the Route 128 corridor in Boston and the Silicon
Valley appeared to be comparable as centers of high-technology. In the intervening
years, the Silicon Valley has prospered, while Route 128 has not. Why? There are many
explanations. Saxenian (1994) has proposed that the difference in business culture is
key. Route 128 is hierarchical, dominated by large corporations. The Silicon Valley is
entrepreneurial, continually refreshed by startups.
p.15
cities
continue to have higher productivity than the national economies that contain them.
p.3
It is important to recognize that concentration is costly. Putting more business activity in
a small area raises the cost of doing business there in many ways: commutes are longer
and space is more costly to name just two. Thus, industry clustering must benefit
businesses in some way that compensates them for the costs of concentrating.
p.4
Cities are costly, as noted above. And there have been technological changes – relatively
cheap air travel and telephone communication, the invention of the fax machine, and
most notoriously the Internet – that have possibly made it less costly to locate away from
concentrations. Thus, there has been speculation that cities will decline in importance.
This is the biggest question of all.
P5
One answer to this question is that agglomeration exists because firms enjoy internal
economies of scale. Scale economies imply that the firm needs many workers; workers
concentrate to economize on commuting; thus, there is an agglomeration. This answer is
not completely satisfying, though, since it motivates only the existence of factory towns
and not the diverse cities that we actually observe.
A more satisfying answer is to say that there are "agglomeration economies", external
economies of scale that make firms more productive in large cities.
p.13
Our results suggest strongly
that firms must be quite close in order to benefit from each other's presence. And this is
true even in the software industry, where presumably everyone has access to email, and
so distance should not matter at all.
I would like to point out that our estimates also establish that diverse locations (low
values of "herf") are more attractive to new firms than are specialized ones. This is
consistent with the increasingly popular view that the benefits of clustering have limits.
It appears that small firms and nonsubsidiary firms have a greater positive
effect on their neighbors than do large firms and subsidiaries.
One interpretation of these results is that an entrepreneurial business environment is more
productive than a hierarchical environment. This certainly appears to be the case in the
Silicon Valley. In the mid-1980s, both the Route 128 corridor in Boston and the Silicon
Valley appeared to be comparable as centers of high-technology. In the intervening
years, the Silicon Valley has prospered, while Route 128 has not. Why? There are many
explanations. Saxenian (1994) has proposed that the difference in business culture is
key. Route 128 is hierarchical, dominated by large corporations. The Silicon Valley is
entrepreneurial, continually refreshed by startups.
p.15
cities
continue to have higher productivity than the national economies that contain them.
Eric J Heikkila Ch 3 and 4
The Economics of Planning
Eric J Heikkila
Center for Urban Policy Research - CUPR Press 2000 (2007)
Ch 3 and 4
Ch 3
The Economics of Housing
*see photocopy for detailed notes)
Housing as a stock and a flow. Distinction between asset and the accommodation services that can be derived from it.
Housing affordability best achieved by encouraging additional supply eg removing controls
Rent controls can actually lead to price increases as it increases demand but supply doesn’t move so some pay more (those who can afford).
Cost of subsidizing homeownership exceeds benefits
Ch 4
The Economics of Urban Structure
Pkanners affect real estate markets in two ways: first via zoning bylaws and other land use regulations that define the limits placed on landowners. Second, more indirect, planners intervene and shape the overall urban context in various ways
Bid rent curve
Different types of land use value distance to CBD differently, which results in successive rings of land use, with commercial in inner ring, and industrial and residential rings further out
Substitution principle: more expensive land used more intensively
From Wikipedia
The bid rent theory is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate changes as the distance from the Central Business District (CBD) increases. It states that different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximise their profitability, so they are much more willing to pay more money for land close to the CBD and less for land further away from this area. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more accessible an area (i.e., the greater the concentration of customers), the more profitable.
Land users all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid rent". The result is a pattern of concentric rings of land use, creating the Concentric zone model.
It could be assumed that, according to this theory, the poorest houses and buildings will be on the very outskirts of the city, as that is the only place that they can afford to occupy. However, in modern times this is rarely the case, as many people prefer to trade off the accessibility of being close to the CBD, and move to the edges of the settlement, where it is possible to buy more land for the same amount of money (as Bid Rent states). Likewise, lower income housing trades off greater living space for greater accessibility to employment. For this reason low income housing in many North American cities, for example, is often found in the inner city, and high income housing is at the edges of the settlement.
Eric J Heikkila
Center for Urban Policy Research - CUPR Press 2000 (2007)
Ch 3 and 4
Ch 3
The Economics of Housing
*see photocopy for detailed notes)
Housing as a stock and a flow. Distinction between asset and the accommodation services that can be derived from it.
Housing affordability best achieved by encouraging additional supply eg removing controls
Rent controls can actually lead to price increases as it increases demand but supply doesn’t move so some pay more (those who can afford).
Cost of subsidizing homeownership exceeds benefits
Ch 4
The Economics of Urban Structure
Pkanners affect real estate markets in two ways: first via zoning bylaws and other land use regulations that define the limits placed on landowners. Second, more indirect, planners intervene and shape the overall urban context in various ways
Bid rent curve
Different types of land use value distance to CBD differently, which results in successive rings of land use, with commercial in inner ring, and industrial and residential rings further out
Substitution principle: more expensive land used more intensively
From Wikipedia
The bid rent theory is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate changes as the distance from the Central Business District (CBD) increases. It states that different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximise their profitability, so they are much more willing to pay more money for land close to the CBD and less for land further away from this area. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more accessible an area (i.e., the greater the concentration of customers), the more profitable.
Land users all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid rent". The result is a pattern of concentric rings of land use, creating the Concentric zone model.
It could be assumed that, according to this theory, the poorest houses and buildings will be on the very outskirts of the city, as that is the only place that they can afford to occupy. However, in modern times this is rarely the case, as many people prefer to trade off the accessibility of being close to the CBD, and move to the edges of the settlement, where it is possible to buy more land for the same amount of money (as Bid Rent states). Likewise, lower income housing trades off greater living space for greater accessibility to employment. For this reason low income housing in many North American cities, for example, is often found in the inner city, and high income housing is at the edges of the settlement.
jeudi 21 octobre 2010
Heikkila Ch 2
The Economics of Planning
Eric J HeikkilaCenter for Urban Policy Research - CUPR Press 2000 (2007)
Ch 2
The Economics of Land Use Zoning
p. 25 ‘perhaps no function is more central to what planners do than is land use zoning. Zoning maps apportion the city into district zones each of which has its own set of permitted uses: single-family residential, multifamily residential, commercial, retail, light industrial, heavy industrial, and/or other uses.’
Rationale@ keep incompatible land uses apart eg chemicals from school. Or more controversial exclude affordable housing from well-to-do neighbourhoods. This chapter considers economic efficiency.
“to the economist land use zoning is seen as an exercise in resource allocation, even if it may not normally be viewed in those terms by planners themselves.”
@how to allocate scarce resources in an efficient manner. If the quantity of land is fixed, as in most urban settings, then one if forced to make trade-offs. Zoning maps represent the planners‘ ‘solution’ to the resources allocation problem.
p.26
“An efficient solution is defined as one that yields the greatest possible output (such as social benefit) for a given amount of input (such as land)”
If market doesn’t generate optimal solution, can intervene. Zoning = “quantity-oriented mode of intervention, where zoning assigns each land use category a set quota of land… An alternative mode of intervention is price-based intervention, an option planners would do well to consider to attain planning ends more efficiently.”
p.29 ‘because the quantities of land devoted to either land use cannot be adjusted, any market adjustment must come in terms of prices (fig 2.1 a) market cleared price for resid and no resid is different *or and pn) ‘zoning has a direct impact on the price of the land.’
p.30
‘the market allocation tends to equalize the price of comparable parcels of land across all uses while the zoning allocation will tend to introduce price differentials between comparable parcels of land that are subject to different uses
p.33 ‘the market value of land understates the aggregate value because to fails to account for the rising marginal valuation of land as quantities become more scarce’
p. 35 ‘the aggregate value for all land under the market allocation M exceeds aggregate value for zoning allocation Z by the amount depicted….. We term this the triangle of inefficiency’ (aggregate loss in value
‘market allocation is always the one that generates the maximum possible aggregate value of land as measured by the market demand curves. This is a powerful result and one of the reasons that economists tend to be so enthusiastic about markets. Markets ‘automatically’ uncover the land use allocation that maximises the aggregate value of land.’
p.37
‘the term market failure applies to any situation where the market outcome does not produce the maximum social benefit.’
Market demand 2registers willingness to pay2
2it is not rare to encounter situation where the benefits or cost of the use of a good extent beyond the owner of the good in question. This is particularly so in the case of land use’ eg when the public gets upset about undesirable elements “noxious fumes, quality-of-life issues, or other environmental impacts that are not encapsulated in the market price of the parcel in question.’ termed externalities
p. 38 shows that when externalities’ taken into account a zoning solution can provide optimal benefits.
p. 39 ’the market develops the ’highest and best use’ of properties from the owners’ perspectives, but this may not coincide with the land use allocation that maximises social benefit.’
However market failure does not preclude possibility of regulatory failure. There are also positive externalities )often claim in favour of home ownership and stability2
p. 41 planners have been slow to use price to affect zoning.
p. 44 knowing what correct zoning or the ’benefit maximising allocation’ requires knowing the marginal benefit curve and few planners would claim to know that. Difficult to calculate.
But ‘the information requirement for price-based intervention is less onerous. Here the planner needs only to know the extent of the cost (or benefit) associated with the externality so that the correct tax (or subsidy) can be calculated’ for price based intervention… the market is left to uncover the new price allocation (after tax or subsidy). As market conditions change, the market continues to adjust itself, while zoning intervention requires recalculation of the optimum allocation each time there is a fundamental change in market conditions.”
p. 45
“seeking a rezoning on a specific parcel is akin to seeking special exemption from a tax’
‘public officials hold discretionary powers over legislation that impact specific individuals in favourable or unfavourable ways’ and ‘this situation may open the way to influence peddling’
Advantage of zoning is no money changes hands (corruption)
Eric J HeikkilaCenter for Urban Policy Research - CUPR Press 2000 (2007)
Ch 2
The Economics of Land Use Zoning
p. 25 ‘perhaps no function is more central to what planners do than is land use zoning. Zoning maps apportion the city into district zones each of which has its own set of permitted uses: single-family residential, multifamily residential, commercial, retail, light industrial, heavy industrial, and/or other uses.’
Rationale@ keep incompatible land uses apart eg chemicals from school. Or more controversial exclude affordable housing from well-to-do neighbourhoods. This chapter considers economic efficiency.
“to the economist land use zoning is seen as an exercise in resource allocation, even if it may not normally be viewed in those terms by planners themselves.”
@how to allocate scarce resources in an efficient manner. If the quantity of land is fixed, as in most urban settings, then one if forced to make trade-offs. Zoning maps represent the planners‘ ‘solution’ to the resources allocation problem.
p.26
“An efficient solution is defined as one that yields the greatest possible output (such as social benefit) for a given amount of input (such as land)”
If market doesn’t generate optimal solution, can intervene. Zoning = “quantity-oriented mode of intervention, where zoning assigns each land use category a set quota of land… An alternative mode of intervention is price-based intervention, an option planners would do well to consider to attain planning ends more efficiently.”
p.29 ‘because the quantities of land devoted to either land use cannot be adjusted, any market adjustment must come in terms of prices (fig 2.1 a) market cleared price for resid and no resid is different *or and pn) ‘zoning has a direct impact on the price of the land.’
p.30
‘the market allocation tends to equalize the price of comparable parcels of land across all uses while the zoning allocation will tend to introduce price differentials between comparable parcels of land that are subject to different uses
p.33 ‘the market value of land understates the aggregate value because to fails to account for the rising marginal valuation of land as quantities become more scarce’
p. 35 ‘the aggregate value for all land under the market allocation M exceeds aggregate value for zoning allocation Z by the amount depicted….. We term this the triangle of inefficiency’ (aggregate loss in value
‘market allocation is always the one that generates the maximum possible aggregate value of land as measured by the market demand curves. This is a powerful result and one of the reasons that economists tend to be so enthusiastic about markets. Markets ‘automatically’ uncover the land use allocation that maximises the aggregate value of land.’
p.37
‘the term market failure applies to any situation where the market outcome does not produce the maximum social benefit.’
Market demand 2registers willingness to pay2
2it is not rare to encounter situation where the benefits or cost of the use of a good extent beyond the owner of the good in question. This is particularly so in the case of land use’ eg when the public gets upset about undesirable elements “noxious fumes, quality-of-life issues, or other environmental impacts that are not encapsulated in the market price of the parcel in question.’ termed externalities
p. 38 shows that when externalities’ taken into account a zoning solution can provide optimal benefits.
p. 39 ’the market develops the ’highest and best use’ of properties from the owners’ perspectives, but this may not coincide with the land use allocation that maximises social benefit.’
However market failure does not preclude possibility of regulatory failure. There are also positive externalities )often claim in favour of home ownership and stability2
p. 41 planners have been slow to use price to affect zoning.
p. 44 knowing what correct zoning or the ’benefit maximising allocation’ requires knowing the marginal benefit curve and few planners would claim to know that. Difficult to calculate.
But ‘the information requirement for price-based intervention is less onerous. Here the planner needs only to know the extent of the cost (or benefit) associated with the externality so that the correct tax (or subsidy) can be calculated’ for price based intervention… the market is left to uncover the new price allocation (after tax or subsidy). As market conditions change, the market continues to adjust itself, while zoning intervention requires recalculation of the optimum allocation each time there is a fundamental change in market conditions.”
p. 45
“seeking a rezoning on a specific parcel is akin to seeking special exemption from a tax’
‘public officials hold discretionary powers over legislation that impact specific individuals in favourable or unfavourable ways’ and ‘this situation may open the way to influence peddling’
Advantage of zoning is no money changes hands (corruption)
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